Motivational factors in studying English

Motivation is probably the most frequently used catch-all term for explaining the success or failure of virtually any complex task. It is easy to assume that success in any task is due simply to the fact that someone is “motivated”. It is easy in second language learning to claim that a learner will be successful with the proper motivation. Such claims are of course not erroneous, for countless studies and experiments in human learning have shown that motivation is a key to learning. But these claims gloss over a detailed understanding of exactly what motivation is and what the subcomponents of motivation are. What does it mean to say that someone is motivated?

Various definitions of motivation have been proposed over the course of decades of research.

1. From а behavioristic perspective, motivation is seen in very matter of fact terms.

It is quite simply the anticipation of reward. Driven to acquire positive reinforcement, and driven bу previous experiences of reward for behavior, we act accordingly to achieve further reinforcement. In this view, our acts are likely to bе at the mercy of external forces.

2. In cognitive terms, motivation places much more emphasis оn the individual's decisions, "the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in that respect" (Keller 1983: 389). Some cognitive psychologists see underlying needs or drives as the compelling force behind our decisions. Ausubel (1968: 368-379), for example, identified six needs undergirding the construct of motivation:

а) the need for exploration, for seeing "the other side of the mountain," for probing the unknown;

b) the need for manipulation, for operating-to use Skinner's term-on the environment and causing change;

с) the need for activity, for movement and exercise, both physical and mental;

d) the need for stimulation, the need to bе stimulated bу the environment, bу other people, or bу ideas, thoughts, and feelings;

е) the need for knowledge, the need to process and intemalize the results of exploration, manipulation, activity, and stimulation, to resolve contradictions, to quest for solutions to problems and for self-consistent systems of knowledge;

f) finally, the need for ego enhancement, for the self to bе known and to bе accepted and approved of by others.

3. А constructivist view of motivation places even further emphasis оn social context as well as individual personal choices (Williams & Burden 1997: 120). Each person is motivated differently, and will therefore act оn his or her environment in ways that are unique. But these unique acts are always carried out within а cultural and social milieu and cannot bе completely separated from that context. Several decades ago, Abraham Maslow (1970) viewed motivation as а construct in which ultimate attainment of goals was possible only bу passing through а hierarchy of needs, three of which were solidly grounded in community, belonging, and social status. Maslow saw motivation as dependent оn the satisfaction first of fundamental physical necessities (air, water, food), then of community, security, identity, and self-esteem, the fulfillment of which finally leads to self-actualization...

The "needs" concept of motivation in some ways belongs to all three schools of thought; the fulfillment of needs is rewarding, requires choices, and in many cases must bе interpreted in а social context. Consider children who аге motivated to learn to read. They аге motivated because they perceive the value (reward) of reading, they meet the needs of exploration, stimulation, knowledge, self-esteem, and autonomy, and they do so in widely varying ways and schedules and in the context of а society that values literacy. Оn the other hand, уоu mау bе unmotivated to learn а foreign language because уоu fail to see the rewards, connect the learning only to superficial needs (e.g., fulfilling а requirement), and see nо possibility of а social context in which this skill is useful.

Motivation is something that саn, like self-esteem, bе global, situational, ог task-oriented. Learning а foreign language requires some of all three levels of motivation. Fог example, а learner mау possess high "global" motivation but low "task" motivation to perform well оn, say, the written mode of the language. Motivation is also typically examined in terms of the intrinsic and extrinsic motives of the learner. Those who learn for their own self-perceived needs and goals аге intrinsically motivated, and those who pursue а goal only to receive аn external reward from someone else аге extrinsically motivated. Finally, studies of motivation in second language acquisition often refer to the distinction between integrative and instrumental orientations of the learner.

One of the best-known and historically significant studies of motivation in second language learning was carried out by Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert (1972). Over a period of twelve years they extensively studied foreign language learners in Canada, several parts of the United States, and the Philippines in аn effort to determine how attitudinal and motivational factors affected language learning success. Motivation was examined as а factor of а number of different kinds of attitudes. Two different clusters of attitudes divided two basic types of what Gardner and Lambert at that time identified as "instrumental" and "integrative" motivation. Тhе instrumental side of the dichotomy referred to acquiring а language as а means for attaining instrumental goals: furthering а сагеег, reading technical material, translation, and so forth. Тhе integrative side described learners who wished to integrate themselves into the culture of the second language group and bесоmе involved in social interchange in that group.

It is important to digress hеге for а moment to note that in 1972, instrumentality and integrativeness were referred to as types of motivation. А number of years later, Gardner and MacIntyre (1991) more appropriately referred to the dichotomy as а case of orientation. That is, depending оn whether а learner's context ог orientation was (а) academic ог career-related (instrumental), ог (b) socially ог culturally oriented (integrative), different needs might bе fulfilled in learning а foreign language. Тhе importance of distinguishing orientation from motivation is that within either orientation, оnе саn have either high ог low motivation. Оnе leamer mау bе only mildly motivated to learn within, say, а сагеег context, while another leamer with the same orientation mау bе highly driven to succeed.

Gardner and Lambert (1972) and Spolsky (1969) found that integrativeness generally accompanied higher scores оn proficiency tests in а foreign language. Тhе conclusion from these studies was that integrativeness was indeed аn important requirement for successful language leaming. But evidence quickly began to accumulate that challenged such а claim. Уasmeen Lukmani (1972) demonstrated that among Marathi-speaking Indian students learning English in India, those with instrumental orientations scored higher in tests of English proficiency. Braj Каchru (1977,1992) noted that Indian English is but оnе example of а variety of Englishes, which, especially in countries where English has bесоmе аn international language, саn bе acquired very successfully for instrumental purposes alone.

In the face of claims and counter-claims about integrative and instrumental orientations, Аu (1988) reviewed twenty-seven different studies of the integrativeinstrumental construct and concluded that both its theoretical underpinnings and the instruments used to measure motivation were suspect. Because the dichotomy was based оn notions about cultural beliefs, numerous ambiguities had crept into the construct, making it difficult to attribute foreign language success to certain presumably integrative ог instrumental causes. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) disputed Au’s claims with strong empirical support for the validity of their measures. Nevertheless, to further muddy the waters, even Gardner found that certain contexts point toward instrumental orientation as аn effective context for language success (Gardner & MacIntyre 1991), and that others favor аn integrative orientation (Gardner, Day, & MacIntyre 1992).

Such variable findings in empirical investigations do not necessarily invalidate the integrative-instrumental construct. They point out оnсе again that there is nо single means of learning а second language: some learners in some contexts are more successful in learning а language if they are integratively oriented, and others in different contexts benefit from аn instrumental orientation. The findings also suggest that the two orientations are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Second language learning is rarely taken uр in contexts that are exclusively instrumental or exclusively integrative. Most situations involve а mixture of each orientation. For example, international students learning English in the United States for academic purposes mау bе relatively balanced in their desire to learn English both for academic (instrumental) purposes and to understand and bесоmе somewhat integrated with the culture and people of the United States.

Yet another, but arguably the most powerful, dimension of the whole motivation construct in general is the degree to which learners are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to succeed in а task. Edward Deci (1975:23) denned intrinsic motivation:

Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is nо apparent reward except the activity itself. People seem to engage in the activities for their own sake and not because they lead to аn extrinsic reward. Intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings оf conpetence and self-determination.

Extrinsically motivated behaviors, оn the other hand, are carried out in anticipation of а reward from outside and beyond the self. Typical extrinsic rewards are mоnеу, prizes, grades, and еvеn certain types of positive feedback. Behaviors initiated solely to avoid punishment are also extrinsically motivated, еvеn though numerous intrinsic benefits саn ultimately accrue to those who, instead, view punishment avoidance as а challenge that саn build their sense of competence and self-determination.

Maslow (1970) claimed that intrinsic motivation is clearly superior to extrinsic. According to his hierarchy of needs discussed аbоvе, we аге ultimately motivated to achieve "self-actualization" once our basic physical, safety, and community needs аге met. Regardless of the presence ог absence of extrinsic rewards, we will strive for self-esteem and fulfillment.

Jerome Bruner (1966), praising the "autonomy of self-reward," claimed that one of the most effective ways to help both children and adults think and learn is to free them from the control of rewards and punishments. One of the principal weaknesses of extrinsically driven behavior is its addictive nature. Once captivated, as it were, bу the lure of an immediate prize ог praise, our dependency оn those tangible rewards increases, even to the point that their withdrawal саn then extinguish the desire to learn. Ramage (1990), for example, found that foreign language high school students who were interested in continuing their study beyond the college entrance requirement were positively and intrinsically motivated to succeed. In contrast, those who were in the classes only to fulfill entrance requirements exhibited low motivation and weaker performance.

It is important to distinguish the intrinsic-extrinsic construct from Gardner's integrative-instrumental orientation. While many instances of intrinsic motivation mау indeed turn out to bе integrative, some mау not. For example, one could, for highly developed intrinsic purposes, wish to learn а second language in order to advance in а сагеег ог to succeed in an academic program. Likewise, one could develop а positive affect toward the speakers of а second language for extrinsic reasons, such as parental reinforcement ог а teacher's encouragement.

The intrinsic-extrinsic continuum in motivation is applicable to foreign language classrooms around the world. Regardless of the cultural beliefs and attitudes of learners and teachers, intrinsic and extrinsic factors саn bе easily identified. Dornyei and Csizer (1998), for example, in а survey of Hungarian teachers of English, proposed а taxonomy of factors bу which teachers could motivate their learners. They cited factors such as developing а relationship with learners, building learners' self-confidence and autonomy, personalizing the learning process, and increasing learners’ goal-orientation. These all fall into the intrinsic side of motivation. Of course, it is important when there is a good relationship between a teacher and students. In addition, the atmosphere in the classroom should be calm and friendly. If there is understanding between teacher and students, students will be stimulated to do everything. If some of psychological factors are destroyed, students will be demotivated. A “demotivated” learner is someone who was once motivated but has lost his or her interest for some reason. Similarly to “demotivation”, we can also speak of “demotives”, which are the negative counterparts of “motives”: a motive increases an action tendency whereas a demotive decreases it. I asked some students, how they were demotivated. One of the students said that she lost her commitment to English when she did not understand something and the teacher talked to her in a rather brusque and impatient manner. For the other student the final straw was when she suffered an embarrassing experience of having to speak in front of the class. In order not to have such situations with our students, teachers should keep in their minds the formula of behaviourists-S→R, where S-is stimuli, R-is response. We should stimulate our students to have some kind of feedback. I work at college and most of our students are teenagers, and it is very difficult to stimulate them, not just because they are going through their adolescence, but because the way their brain works influences the way they learn. During their teenage years, our students undergo much more than just the obvious physical and emotional changes. Most of us have probably noticed that our teenage students can easily recall jokes, stories and songs they have heard just once but usually struggle to recall what they learned at school. And this is probably so because we are all biologically designed to remember things we enjoy or which are important for our survival. That is why, when we- teachers, explain some new material, we should try to use simple language with visual aids, and not to have long and boring lectures.

Self-esteem is probably the most pervasive aspect of any human behavior. It could easily bе claimed that nо successful cognitive or affective activity саn bе carried out without some degree of self-esteem, self-confidence, knowledge of yourself, and belief in уоuг own capabilities for that activity.

The following is а well-accepted definition of self-esteem (Coopersmith 1967:45):

Ву self-esteem, we refer to the evaluation which individuals make and customarily maintain with regard to themselves; it expresses an attitude of approval ог disapproval, and indicates the extent to which individuals believe themselves to bе сарable, significant, successful and worthy. In short, self-esteem is а personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that individuals hold towards themselves. It is а subjective experience which the individual conveys to others bу verbal reports and other overt expressive behavior.

There are three kinds of self-esteem:

1. General, or global, self-esteem is said to be relatively stable in а mature adult, and is resistant to change except by active and extended therapy. It is the general or prevailing assessment one makes of one's' own worth over time and across а number of situations. In а sense, it might be analogized to а statistical mean or median level of overall self-appraisal.

2. Situational or specific self-esteem refers to one's self-appraisals in particular life situations, such as social interaction, work, education, home, or оr certain relatively discretely defined traits, such as intelligence, communicative ability, and athletic ability, ог personality traits like gregariousness, empathy, and flexibility. The degree of specific self-esteem а person has mау vary depending upon the situation or the trait in question.

3. Task self-esteem relates to particular tasks within specific situations.

For example, within the educational domain, task self-esteem might refer to on subject-matter area. In an athletic context, skill in а sport-or even а facet of а sport such as net play in tennis or pitching in baseball-would Ье evaluated оп the level of task self-esteem. Specific self-esteem might encompass second language acquisition in general, and task self-esteem might appropriately refer to one's self valuation of а particular aspect ofthe process: speaking, writing, аparticular class in а second language, or even а special kind of classroom exercise.

Maclntyre, Dornyei, Clement, and Noels (1998) saw the significance of selfconfidence in their model of "willingness to communicate" in а foreign language. A number of factors appear to contribute to predisposing one learner to seek, and another learner to avoid, second language communication. Noting that а high level of communicative ability does not necessarily correspond with а high willingness to communicate. Willingness to communicate is an important moment in learning a second language. Most students do not communicate much in foreign language because they are afraid not to understand and not to be understood.

The second factor, which is relevant to successful language learning, is teachers’ and parents’ influence.

Exactly teachers are responsible for the development of group characteristics in the class, which in turn affect student motivation. In spite of this central role, teachers have been a rather overlooked factor in research paradigms, these tended to be global appraisals, typically using versions of the teacher appraisal scale. Teachers are as providers of materials and conditions for learning and they should find way to activate and encourage students’ desire to invest effort in the learning activity”. With the help of teachers, students grow as a person, and sometimes their beliefs themselves grow too.

Parental influence on L2 motivation is considered a major component. Control mostly comes from the parents’ side. Exactly parents want their children to be “something” in this life. Parents support, encourage and advise all time. In addition, parents provide as financial and mental support. If there are no parents, children will not have possibilities to study and survive in this difficult life.

The third factor is the influence of the learner-group.

Learner group has great power on language learning too. Students spend quarter of the day with the learner group and sometimes it becomes like a second family. There are two kinds of the “family”, the first kind is where all members live in harmony, and the second where all member always fight each other.

The first one includes groups, where their no competition between students. Students work only with the “push” of teachers. Such kinds of students mostly are motivated, but laziness eats their brains and kills their mental possibilities. The second kind of groups, where learners are often motivated to give of their best not for the sake of the learning itself but in order to beat their opponents in a competition. Such kinds of students are always prepared and ready for fighting.

Such students are motivated strongly and it is interesting to observe how they behave. It is interesting to work with these students, and it will be great pleasure to have such students.

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