On teaching speaking and listening to university level students
К содержанию номера журнала: Вестник КАСУ №2 - 2012
Автор: Кузнецова Наталья Алексеевна
There
are many reasons for focusing on listening and speaking when teaching English
as a foreign language, not least of which is the fact that we as humans have
been learning languages through our ears and mouth for thousands upon thousands
of years, far longer than we as humans have been able to read. Our brains are
well programmed to learn languages through sound and speech. This is not to say
that reading and writing are not effective, only to highlight the value of
listening and speaking and point out that many studies have suggested that
language learned through sound and speech is more readily acquired. [2, page 1]
Courses
in listening and speaking take an integral part in teaching activity. This is
the most effective way to teach English. The teaching of listening has
attracted a greater level of interest in recent years than it did in the past.
Now, university entrance exams, exit exams, and other examinations often
include a listening component, acknowledging that listening skills are a core
component of language proficiency, and also reflecting the assumption that if
listening isn’t tested, teachers won’t teach it. [1, page 1]
Earlier
views of listening showed it as the mastery of discrete skills or
microskills,
such as recognizing reduced forms of words, recognizing cohesive devices in
texts, and identifying key words in a text, and that these skills should form
the focus of teaching. Later views of listening drew on the field of cognitive
psychology, which introduced the notions of bottom-up and top-down processing
and brought attention to the role of prior knowledge and schema in
comprehension. Listening came to be seen as an interpretive process. At the
same time, the fields of discourse analysis and conversational analysis revealed
a great deal about the nature and organization of spoken discourse and led to a
realization that reading written texts aloud could not provide a suitable basis
for developing the abilities needed to process real-time authentic discourse.
Hence, current views of listening emphasize the role of the listener, who is
seen as an active participant in listening, employing strategies to facilitate,
monitor, and evaluate his or her listening. [1, p. 1]
Approaches
to the teaching of speaking in ELT have been more strongly influenced by fads
and fashions than the teaching of listening. “Speaking” in traditional
methodologies usually meant repeating after the teacher, memorizing a dialog,
or responding to drills, all of which reflect the sentence-based view of proficiency
prevailing in the audiolingual and other drill-based or repetitionbased methodologies
of the 1970s. The emergence of communicative language teaching in the 1980s led
to changed views of syllabuses and methodology, which are continuing to shape approaches
to teaching speaking skills today. Grammarbased syllabuses were replaced by
communicative ones built around notions, functions, skills, tasks, and other
non-grammatical units of organization. Fluency became a goal for speaking
courses and this could be developed through the use of information-gap and
other tasks that required learners to attempt real communication, despite
limited proficiency in English. In so doing, learners would develop
communication strategies and engage in negotiation of meaning, both of which
were considered essential to the development of oral skills. [1, page 2]
Listening
Successful
listening can also be looked at in terms of the strategies the listener uses
when listening. Does the learner focus mainly on the content of a text, or does
he or she also consider how to listen? A focus on how to listen raises the
issues of listening strategies. Strategies can be thought of as the ways in
which a learner approaches and manages a task, and listeners can be taught
effective ways of approaching and managing their listening. These activities
seek to involve listeners actively in the process of listening.
Buck identifies two kinds of strategies in listening: [3, page
104]
Cognitive strategies: Mental activities related to comprehending
and storing input in working memory or long-term memory for later retrieval:
- Comprehension processes: Associated with
the processing of linguistic and nonlinguistic input;
- Storing and memory processes: Associated with
the storing of linguistic and nonlinguistic input in working memory or
long-term memory;
- Using and retrieval processes: Associated with
accessing memory, to be readied for output.
Metacognitive
strategies: Those conscious or unconscious mental
activities that perform an executive function in the management of
cognitive strategies:
- Assessing the situation: Taking stock of
conditions surrounding a language task by assessing one’s own knowledge, one’s
available internal and external resources, and the constraints of the situation
before engaging in a task;
- Monitoring: Determining the
effectiveness of one’s own or another’s performance while engaged in a task;
- Self-evaluating: Determining the
effectiveness of one’s own or another’s performance after engaging in the
activity;
- Self-testing: Testing oneself
to determine the effectiveness of one’s own language use or the lack thereof.
There
are many listening activities to raise learners’ awareness and provide them
with useful strategies: [4, p. 3]
-
Awareness raising: Provide your student with a set of pictures that match a
story, allow them time to look at the pictures to get an idea of what is
happening in the pictures. Read the story aloud to your student and ask them to
put the pictures in order as they hear the story (You would need to conduct pre-listening
activities prior to doing this so that your student had accessed the correct
vocabulary and was prepared).
-
With recorded speech, many texts are not as authentic as natural conversations
that happen between people. If you have a recorder, try recording yourself
chatting to a friend or family member in as natural a way as possible.
-
The register of the speech – the situation and context in which it occurs
impacts greatly on the language used, the tenor or relationship between
speakers, the degree of formality and the mode i.e. whether it is face-to-face,
over the telephone, pre-recorded etc. These elements are important for your
student to be able to identify so that they know what language choices are
appropriate. You could do this in listening exercises when listening for gist –
ask your student about the register of the text (who is speaking, what’s their
relationship, how are they speaking and what are they speaking about). And ask
your student to identify what this tells them about the kind of language that
might be used. How formal/informal can they expect the text to be, how much
jargon may be used [5, p. 19].
-
Prediction activity: Predicting, asking for clarification and using non-verbal
cues are strategies that can increase chances for successful listening. For
example, using video can help learners develop cognitive strategies. As they
view a segment with the sound off, learners can be asked to make predictions
about what is happening by answering questions about setting, action and interaction.
Viewing the segment again with the sound on allows them to confirm or modify
their hypothesis.
Broadly
speaking, listening skills can be divided into two classifications:
•
bottom up skills (or processing);
•
top down skills (or processing).
Bottom
up processing refers to the decoding process, the direct decoding of language
into meaningful units, from sound waves to meaning. Top down processing refers
to the attribution of meaning, drawn from one’s own world knowledge, to
language input. In short bottom up is what the page brings to the learner and
top down is what the learner brings to the page. To illustrate this, listed below
are a few of the sub-skills divided into bottom up and top down roughly
sequenced from beginning level skills to the more advanced skills. [2, page
2-3]
Bottom
Up Skills:
•
discriminating between intonation contours
•
discriminating between phonemes
•
hearing morphological endings
•
selecting details
•
recognizing fast speech forms
•
finding stressed syllables
•
recognizing reduced forms
•
recognizing words as they link together in connected streams
•
recognizing prominent details
•
recognizing sentence level features in lecture text
•
recognizing organization clues
Top
Down Skills:
•
discriminating between emotions
•
getting the gist
•
recognizing the topic
•
using discourse structure to enhance listening strategies
•
identifying the speaker
•
evaluating themes
•
finding the main idea
•
finding supporting details
•
making inferences
•
understanding organizing principals of extended texts
By
developing learners’ listening abilities, a teacher is enabling learners to
participate at an early stage in the communication exchanges that are happening
in their community [6, page 34].
Speaking
Speech
acts have communicative functions such as complementing, suggesting, requesting
and offering that are part of a speaker’s pragmatic knowledge. That is, knowing
how to do things with language taking into account the context of its use. For
learners, this will require an understanding of how to perform and interpret
specific acts of speech as well knowing how to adapt these speech act formulas
for different situations. There are also set patterns within speech acts such
as the adjacency pair which involves a question and a paired response. As these
are paired utterances where the second is dependent on the first, they can be
quite formulaic for teaching [5, p. 16-17].
Pronunciation,
or the sound of speech, can refer to many features of speech such as pitch,
volume, speed, pausing, stress and intonation. The sounds of people’s speech
can be very meaningful as speakers use the above features to create a texture
for their talk that supports and enhances what they are saying. When words are
strung together in normal speech they are subject to phonological change where
word boundaries become blurred, sounds can become modified by the sounds next
to them, some sounds drop off and some sounds are added. These can also be
combined with other dimensions particular to speech, such as facial expressions
and gestures, which can add depth to a message and may even convey the exact
opposite to what the actual words would suggest. Learners then need to be made
aware of the above features of speech when teaching speaking and listening, as
they will influence learners understanding of speech or the meaning they convey
in speech [7, p. 10-11].
Fluency
is an important part of speaking and includes the following:
•
the ability to use language spontaneously;
•
the ability to listen and comprehend spontaneously;
•
the ability to respond spontaneously;
•
the ability to compensate for any lack in any of the above.
As
such fluency activities do not seek to enhance student understanding of the
language system but rather seeks to improve the speed and efficiency with which
students access their language system knowledge. It entails getting students to
use language they already know. It entails getting students to use language
that they are already well familiar with. Fluency work entails getting language
to become “automatic” [2, p. 4].
For
teaching speaking teacher can use different activities as: conversations,
group discussions, and speeches. These methods provide students with skills
that will help them to behave correctly in different situations whether it
would be accidental talk or specially prepared speech.
Listening
and speaking are complex cognitive processes and the teaching of listening and
speaking is no less an involved endeavor. To help us clarify what this might entail,
it is perhaps helpful to make a distinction between the language system itself
and the associated language skills. A language system encompasses not only the
words of a language and their associated order, lexis and syntax, but the
phonology and the macro fields of genre and discourse; how the language is
strung together in extended texts. Skills refer to how the language system is
used, the degree to which this is automatic, and the degree to which it is
appropriate to a given social situation and the strategies used which aid and enhance
communication [2, p. 1].
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Jack C. Richards, Teaching Listening and Speaking
From Theory to Practice, Cambridge University Press, 2008
2. Alastair Graham-Marr, Teaching Skills for Listening
and Speaking, Tokai University, 2010.
3. Buck
G. Assessing Listening, Cambridge University Press, 2001.
4. Edwina Hart, Teaching Speaking and Listening, 2009.
5. Thornbury S. How to teach speaking, Pearson
education Limited, 2008.
6. Field J., Looking outwards, not inwards, ELT
Journal, Oxford University Press, 2007.
7. Luoma S., The
nature of speaking. Assessing Speaking, Cambridge University press, 2004.
К содержанию номера журнала: Вестник КАСУ №2 - 2012
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